China

During the 7th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party held from 23 April through 11 June 1945, Mao Zedong is made leader of the Party and "Mao Zedong Thought" is enshrined in the newly passed constitution.

Large scale fighting between the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party begins, marking the start of the Chinese Civil War.

During an interview with Anna Louise Strong, Mao Zedong says that "all reactionaries are paper tigers" and discusses the Chinese Civil War. He also introduces the theory of the "intermediate zone," stating that "the United States and the Soviet Union are separated by a vast zone which includes many capitalist, colonial and semi-colonial countries in Europe, Asia and Africa."

The Liaoshen (Liaoning-Shenyang) Campaign, the first of three major campaigns during the Chinese Civil War, begins on 12 September 1948, and involves more than one-million soldiers from both sides. By the conclusion of the campaign on 2 November 1948, the Chinese Communist Party had defeated the Guomindang in Manchuria and had taken control over some of China's most important industrial centers.

The Huaihai Campaign, the second and largest of the three major military campaigns of the Chinese Civil War, begins on 6 November 1948. The Chinese Communist Party defeats the Guomindang in areas north of the Yangtze River and takes control of crucial rail lines and commercial centers in east China by 10 January 1949.

The Pingjin Campaign, the last of the three major campaigns of the Chinese Civil War, begins on 29 November 1948. The Chinese Communist Party defeats the Guomindang in Beiping (now Beijing), Tianjin, and Zhangjiakou. The conclusion of this campaign on 31 January 1949 marks the decisive victory of the Chinese Communist Party in northern China.

On the orders of Stalin, Anastas Mikoyan makes a secret visit to Xibaipo, the temporary headquarters of the Chinese Communist Party, during January and February 1949. Mikoyan holds several meetings with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to discuss the future of the Sino-Soviet relationship.

In a famous article entitled “On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship,” Mao Zedong announces that China will “lean to one side” in its foreign policy. Mao wrote that China must “ally with the Soviet Union” and “form an international united front.”

Liu Shaoqi, the Chinese Communist Party's second in command, secretly visits Moscow and remains in the Soviet Union until 14 August 1949. During a meeting on 11 July 1949, Stalin informs Liu Shaoqi that China has the obligation to support revolutions and anti-colonial struggles in Asia, while the USSR will focus its resources on western countries. 

Following three years fighting against the Guomindang, Mao Zedong proclaims the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from Tian'anmen Square. Though much of the Guomindang had already fled to Taiwan, huge swathes of Chinese territory, including Tibet, nevertheless had yet to come under the control of the Chinese Communist Party.

Mao Zedong leaves Beijing via train on 6 December 1949, arriving in Moscow on 16 December. Desiring to negotiate a new Sino-Soviet Treaty, Mao meets with Stalin on the day of his arrival but a breakthrough in negotiations is not reached until early January 1950. Mao remains in the Soviet Union until 17 February 1950.

On 18 January 1950, the People's Republic of China formally recognizes and establishes diplomatic relations with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, or North Vietnam. Later that month the Chinese Communist Party, intent on supporting revolutions in Asia, sends Luo Guibo, a high-ranking commander, to Vietnam to assist Ho Chi Minh’s forces in the war against France.

Following months of difficult negotiations, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance is signed in Moscow, marking the formal beginning of the Sino-Soviet alliance. China benefits from the treaty by gaining military and material support from the Soviet Union, while the Soviets retain many economic privileges in Northeast China and Xinjiang.

Continuing its support for the Viet Minh, the Chinese Communist Party dispatches advisers from the People's Liberation Army to North Vietnam in April 1950. Headed by Wei Guoqing and Chen Geng, the Chinese Military Advisory Group (CMAG) helps to train and arm Vietnamese soldiers. The CMAG also assists the Viet Minh with orchestrating the successful 1950 Border Campaign against France as well as the decisive Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

During a meeting with Mao Zedong, North Korean leader Kim Il Sung says that "the present situation has changed from the situation in the past" and indicates his interest in launching a war against South Korea. Mao Zedong asks for clarification from Stalin before showing support for Kim Il Sung's plan to start the Korean War.

Two weeks following the start of the Korean War, Mao Zedong establishes the Northeast Border Defense Army (NEBDA) and orders it to safeguard the Sino-Korean border. More than 250,000 Chinese troops are assembled along the Yalu River by August 1950 to protect China in the event that the Korean People’s Army could not withstand the United Nations Forces.

With support from the Chinese Military Advisory Group, the Viet Minh launches the Battle of Dong Khe, also known as the Border Campaign, on 16 September 1950. Vietnamese troops successfully seize Dong Khe, a strategic outpost in northern Vietnam, from French forces on 18 September.  Mao Zedong encourages Ho Chi Minh to continue the assault on French forces in Cao Bang, and by 13 October the Viet Minh had taken control over the entire Sino-Vietnamese border region.

After convening a meeting of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on 18 October 1950, Mao Zedong informs Commander Peng Dehuai and North Korean leader Kim Il Sung that the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (CPV) will cross the Yalu River and fight alongside the Korean People’s Army against the United States. 

Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai arrives in the Soviet Union on 17 August 1952, where he remains until 22 September 1952. Zhou meets with Stalin several times to discuss the Korean War, Soviet technical assistance for China, China's First Five-Year Plan, and the Soviet withdrawal from Port Arthur.

After more than two-years of negotiations, the Korean War Armistice is signed in Panmunjom (Panmunjeom) on 27 July 1953 by  Lieutenant General William Harrison, Jr. representing the United Nations Command (UNC), and General Nam Il, representing the Korean People's Army (KPA) and the Chinese People’s Volunteer Army (CPV).

Zhou Enlai announces the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence during a discussion over disputed Tibetan territory with a delegation from India on 31 December 1953. Emphasizing mutual respect for sovereignty, non-interference, and peaceful coexistence, the Five Principles are enshrined in the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference in 1955 and become a core set of principles underlying Chinese foreign policy throughout the Cold War and after.

At the Fourth Plenary Session of the Seventh CCP, held 6 February through 10 February 1954, Zhou Enlai and Liu Shaoqi accuse Gao Gang and Rao Shushi of factionalist activities. Gao and Rao are purged from the CCP, and the session concludes with the passage of a "Resolution on Strengthening the Party's Unity." Gao Gang commits suicide in August 1954.

With equipment and ammunition provided by China, on 13 March 1954 the Viet Minh begins an assault on French troops in Dien Bien Phu, a strategically important village located in northwestern Vietnam. Successfully concluded on 7 May 1954, the Battle of Dien Bien Phu marks the end of French control and influence in Indochina as well as the victory of the Viet Minh in the First Indochina War.

Representatives from the USA, the USSR, China, France, and the UK attend an important international conference in Geneva, Switzerland from 26 April-20 July 1954 to resolve the Indochina and Korea problems. With Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai's participation, the Geneva Conference marks, for the first time since 1949, the acceptance of the  People's Republic of China as an important power on the international stage.

On 3 September 1954, the First Taiwan Crisis begins with the People's Liberation Army’s bombardment of Jinmen (Quemoy). On 23 April 1955, Zhou Enlai claims that China is willing to negotiate the Taiwan issue with Washington, marking the end of the crisis. The crisis inadvertently makes it more difficult for Beijing to resolve the Taiwan problem and “liberate Taiwan” due to the signing of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty between Washington and Taipei on 3 March 1955.

Nikita Khrushchev, Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union following Stalin's death in March 1953, leads a delegation to visit China from 29 September through 12 October 1954. The beginning of the so-called honeymoon period of the Sino-Soviet alliance, the visit contributes to the development of economic and military cooperation between China and the Soviet Union. By the end of 1956, the number of Soviet experts in China had reached a peak of 3,113.

Leading representatives from 29 newly independent African, Asian, and Middle Eastern countries come together for the Afro-Asian Conference in Bandung, Indonesia, from 19 April-24 April 1955.  Zhou Enlai attends on behalf of China and strengthens ties between China and Third World countries and contributes to the establishment of the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference.

On 27 April 1955, a delegation led by Qian Sanqiang signs an agreement with the Soviet Union in Moscow under which the USSR agrees to offer China nuclear technology and to dispatch nuclear experts to China. 

From 1 August 1955 until February 1970, China holds a series of ambassadorial level talks with the United States in Geneva to discuss the status of Taiwan, the repatriation of nationals, and other issues. Though achieving few tangible achievements, the talks provide both countries a channel for communication and a means to prevent minor misunderstandings from escalating into conflict.

Nikita Khrushchev delivers a speech criticizing the leadership of and cult of personality surrounding Stalin at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Khrushchev’s speech greatly offends Mao Zedong and other leaders in the Chinese Communist Party and marks the beginning of the Sino-Soviet split. The schism between Beijing and Moscow deepens in 1958 following disputes over a proposed jointly-owned long-wave radio station and a joint submarine fleet.

In a speech on 2 May 1956, Mao Zedong calls for the Chinese Communist Party to "let a hundred flowers bloom and let a hundred schools of thought contend," marking the formal beginning of the Hundred Flowers Campaign. Mao momentarily encourages the airing of different views and solutions to national problems and the development of literature and science. The campaign is brought to a halt in July 1957 when Mao launches a wave of repression during the Anti-Rightist Movement.

Troops of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) enter into territory in northern Burma on 31 July 1956. Though the PLA agrees to withdraw by the end of 1956 and both countries take steps to resolve the border dispute, a Sino-Burmese Boundary Treaty is not concluded until 1 October 1960.

During the 8th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) held 15 September through 27 September 1956, Deng Xiaoping is elevated to the near top of the Central Committee. Reflecting Mao's diminished position within the CCP, Mao Zedong Thought is removed from the constitution. Liu Shaoqi delivers an extensive political report on the state of China.

Mao Zedong officially launches the Anti-Rightist Movement in June 1957. The campaign targets alleged "rightists" inside the Chinese Communist Party, and by the end of the 1957 alone, more than 300,000 people have been labeled as such. Lasting until 1959, the Anti-Rightist Movement lays a foundation for other radical campaigns carried out by the Chinese Communist Party, including the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.

The Soviet Union signs a secret agreement  to provide the People's Republic of China with a model of an atomic bomb and other nuclear equipment,  though the Soviets are deliberately vague as to precisely what equipment would be delivered and when such deliveries would take place.

Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong visits Moscow to attend the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution and to participate in the Moscow Meeting involving sixty-four communist parties from 2 November through 21 November 1957. The Moscow Meeting marks a turning point after which the Sino-Soviet relationship became increasingly bitter and hostile.

Mao Zedong summons Soviet Ambassador Pavel Yudin to Zhongnanhai and, in an emotional tirade, announces "you never trust the Chinese!  You only trust the Russians!" After reviewing the history of Sino-Soviet relations, Mao rejects the Soviet Union's proposal for a joint submarine flotilla.

Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev visits China from 31 July through 3 August 1958. Khrushchev holds several meetings with Mao Zedong which were characterized by mistrust and uneasiness. The two discuss atomic weapons, the global strategic balance of power, and American politics, among other topics. Khrushchev and Mao also agree to table the joint submarine proposal.

Beginning on 23 August 1958 and lasting twenty-nine days, the People’s Liberation Army shells Jinmen (Quemoy) and the Mazu (Matsu) Islands in what becomes known as the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis. Mao Zedong uses the crisis to goad Moscow and Washington into threatening nuclear war against each other while probing the United States’ attitude towards its mutual defense treaty with Taiwan.

On 10 March 1959, the Tibetan Uprising, a large-scale rebellion, erupts in Lhasa as a result of Tibetan suspicion of the tighter controls and socialist reforms pursued by the Chinese Communist Party. As the People’s Liberation Army prepares to crush the rebellion, the Dalai Lama flees to northern India on 17 March. Attracting international criticism and censure, the Tibetan Uprising also deepens the Sino-Soviet split.

With tensions growing between the two communist superpowers, Moscow informs Beijing that the Soviet Union will no longer provide China with nuclear technology, including atomic bomb prototypes and technical data for producing bombs, because of the Soviet-American negotiations in Geneva.

On 18 July 1960, Moscow decides all Soviet advisors and experts in China are to be withdrawn, bringing the Sino-Soviet schism into a new and heightened phase. By the end of August, approximately 1,400 Soviet personnel leave China and more than 200 projects of scientific and technological cooperation are abruptly brought to a halt. The withdrawal of Soviet advisors does a great deal of harm to China’s economy and angers the leadership in the Chinese Communist Party.

The 7,000 Cadres Conference, the largest-ever held CCP work conference, convenes in Beijing from 11 January through 7 February. At the conference, Liu Shaoqi accepts partial responsibility for the Great Famine on behalf of the Central Committee and many of Mao Zedong's domestic policies are criticized.

In the spring of 1962, approximately 67,000 people flee from Xinjiang to Soviet Kazakhstan. Blaming the Soviet Union for causing the unrest, Beijing closes all Soviet consulates throughout China. Known as the "Yi-Ta Incident", the crisis in Xinjiang marks the further deterioration of Sino-Soviet relations.

In response to Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's "Forward Policy" in the Himalayas, the People's Liberation Army strikes at the Eastern and Western Sectors of the Sino-Indian border on 20 October 1962. By 21 November 1962, China had successfully defeated India and restored the status quo. Because of Moscow’s posture of neutrality in the dispute between China and India, however, the war also deepens the Sino-Soviet split.

Mao Zedong begins to espouse his theory of the “Two Intermediate Zones,” with Asia, Africa, and Latin America constituting the first, and Europe and North America constituting the second.

On 27 January 1964, the Chinese and French governments issue a joint communiqué and agree to exchange ambassadors. France becomes the first Western power to formally establish diplomatic relations with China at the ambassadorial level.

On 16 October 1964, China successfully explodes its first atomic bomb at the Lop Nur test site in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. An important step in China's defense modernization, China becomes the fifth nuclear power with this detonation.

Beginning on 27 April 1965, China agrees to assist North Vietnam with transportation construction, anti-aircraft artillery, and other material support. By dispatching more than 100,000 engineers to Vietnam, China plays an important role in North Vietnam’s war effort against the United States.

Beginning on 16 May 1966, Mao Zedong launches the Cultural Revolution, a ten-year political campaign. A social experiment aimed at suppressing counterrevolutionaries and purifying the Chinese Communist Party, the Cultural Revolution is a disaster for China and creates chaos across the country. During the height of the Cultural Revolution, all Chinese ambassadors, with one exception, are recalled home.

Beginning on 2 March 1969, a bloody conflict erupts on Zhenbao Island (Damansky Island), located near the Chinese bank of the Ussuri River between China and the Soviet Union. Taking place during the height of the Sino-Soviet split, the Sino-Soviet Border Conflict lasts for seven-months and brings the two rivals to the brink of war.

During the 9th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party held from 1 April through 24 April 1969, Lin Biao is elevated higher within the Party, Mao Zedong Thought is reinstated into the constitution, and Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping are purged.

Following the Tet Offensive, Mao Zedong comes to believe that North Vietnam’s military actions are contradictory to his military doctrine. With tensions growing between China and Vietnam, Beijing begins to pull back its support for the war effort, first by withdrawing anti-aircraft artillery units in March 1969 and later by withdrawing all Chinese engineers by July 1970. 

Following a surprise invitation to the United States table tennis team to visit China, on 14 April 1971 Zhou Enlai receives the American players in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. The first group of Americans allowed into China since 1949, Zhou announces that the visit has “opened a new chapter in the relations of the American and Chinese people.” Known as Ping-Pong diplomacy, the visit helps to facilitate the breakthrough in US-China relations in 1972.

Henry Kissinger, President Nixon's National Security Advisor, secretly visits Beijing and meets Zhou Enlai on 9 July 1971. During the meeting, Zhou and Kissinger discuss  Taiwan, the then ongoing Soviet-American talks, and China's relations with India and the Soviet Union. Kissinger's secret visit paves the way for the Sino-American rapprochement and for President Nixon's trip to China in February 1972.

The United Nations General Assembly passes Resolution 2758 on 25 October 1971, recognizing the People's Republic of China (PRC) as the only legitimate representative of China to the United Nations and expelling Jiang Jieshi's delegation. The PRC not only takes over the Republic of China's membership in the United Nations, but also gains a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.

On 21 February 1972, U.S. President Richard Nixon arrives in Beijing and begins a historic seven-day visit to China. Through the Shanghai Communiqué issued during Nixon’s visit on 28 February 1972, both sides agree not to “seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region,” while the US acknowledges that there is only one China and Taiwan is a part of China.

Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka visits China at the invitation of Premier Zhou Enlai on 25 September 1972. On 29 September, Kakuei Tanaka and Zhou Enlai issue the Sino-Japanese Joint Statement on behalf of both governments, restoring diplomatic relations between the two countries. Kakuei Tanaka's ice-breaking visit to Beijing marks the normalization of Sino-Japan relations, paving the way for further economic and cultural exchanges between the two former enemies.

During the 10th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party held from 24 August through 28 August 1973, the "Gang of Four," or Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen, reaches its peak of power, criticizing Lin Biao and defending the Cultural Revolution.

On 22 February 1974, Mao officially proposes the Theory of Three Worlds, claiming that the “First World” is made up of the rich and nuclear armed USSR and US, the “Second World” refers to Japan, Europe, Australia, and Canada, and the “Third World” covers the undeveloped countries of Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Reflecting a new diplomatic orientation, China begins prioritizing the Third World in its foreign policy following Mao’s speech.

Long-time Chinese leader and skilled diplomat Zhou Enlai dies on 8 January 1976, launching a wave of memorials in Tiananmen Square. The commemorations of Zhou’s life are soon suppressed by the Gang of Four, and the tense domestic situation in China negatively influences Sino-American relations.

The founder of the People's Republic of China, Mao Zedong, dies on 9 September 1976. Mao’s death leads to the end of the Cultural Revolution and eventually creates room for the political and economic transformation of China ushered in by Deng Xiaoping.

During the 11th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party held from 12 August through 18 August 1977, Deng Xiaoping is reinstated into the Party and returns to power.

On 12 August 1978, China and Japan sign the Treaty of Peace and Friendship. The treaty goes into effect on 23 October 1978 when Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping visits Japan. Contributing to peace and stability in East Asia, through the treaty both countries agree not to “seek hegemony in the Asia-Pacific region.”

During the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Central Committee from 11 December to 22 December 1978, Deng Xiaping becomes the de facto leader of the Party and begins several important reforms, including opening China's door to the rest of the world and welcoming foreign investment and privatizing of state-owned industry.

"The Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the United States and China" is unveiled on 16 December 1978, leading to the formal establishment of diplomatic relations between the People’s Republic of China and the United States on 1 January 1979. The United States withdraws its recognition of the Republic of China, or Taiwan, as part of the Joint Communiqué.

Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping visits the United States from 29 January to 4 February 1979 at the invitation of President Jimmy Carter. With the goal to cement the partnership between China and the United States and gain US support for China's actions in Vietnam, Deng's visit is an important benchmark in the development of US-China relations. Deng is the first Chinese leader to come to the US since 1949.

On 17 February 1979, several hundred thousand Chinese troops invade Vietnam, beginning the Sino-Vietnamese War or the Third Indochina War. Lasting until 16 March 1979, the brief war occurred as a result of the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia as well as changes in the Sino-Soviet-American triangular relations. The result of the war is still ambiguous, with both sides claiming victory.

On 18 July 1979, the European Community grants the People's Republic of China most-favored-nation status (MFN). Later this year,  the president of the United State Jimmy Carter decides to extend MFN to China on 23 October 1979. The recognition from Europe and the US is an important step in China opening its borders and strengthening its economic relations with Western countries.

From 5 January to 13 January 1980, US Secretary of Defense Harold Brown visits China, the first visit by a US Secretary of Defense to China since 1949. Vice-Chief of the General Staff of the People’s Liberation Army Liu Huaqing and Vice-Premier Geng Biao lead a Chinese military delegation in a visit to the US later in the year, signaling the formal establishment of military relations.

At the Sixth Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee, the Chinese Communist Party publishes an import document, entitled "Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China." The document assessed the legacy and shortcomings of Mao Zedong, criticized the Cultural Revolution, and called for Party unity going forward. Hua Guofeng also steps down as CCP Chairman.

On 18 August 1982, a Joint Communiqué of the People's Republic of China and the United States of America is issued, in which China reaffirms that Taiwan is a domestic Chinese affair and the US restates its concern for a peaceful resolution, though the terms of arms sales to Taiwan are not precisely defined. Known as the August 17 Communiqué, the agreement helps ease tensions between China and US.

The Chinese Communist Party convenes its 12th National Congress from 1-11 September and proclaims an “independent foreign policy.”

The British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, visits Beijing to discuss the future of Hong Kong on 22 September 1982 and meets Deng Xiaoping on 24 September. During the meeting, Deng displays a tough stance toward China regaining control over Hong Kong in 1997, following the expiration of Britain’s lease.

On 19 December 1984, Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sign a Joint Declaration, announcing that Hong Kong is to become a special administrative region of China on 1 July 1997 with “a high degree of autonomy…and unchanged capitalist system for 50 years.” The Declaration is an important diplomatic victory for China, marking the eventual end of British colonial rule in Hong Kong.

On 13 April 1987, the Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau is signed by the Prime Ministers of China and Portugal in Beijing. Under the "one country-two systems" policy, the Joint Declaration leads to the eventual transfer of Macau back to Chinese control and is another diplomatic victory for China.

Mikhail S. Gorbachev travels to Beijing for meetings with Deng Xiaoping from 15 May through 18 May 1989, the first high-level summit meeting to take place between China and the Soviet Union since 1959. Gorbachev's visit to China marks the normalization of Sino-Soviet relations after years of hostilities.

Calling for government accountability, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and the restoration of workers' control over industry, the student-led movement of spring 1989 is suppressed by hardline leaders who order the military to enforce martial law. The scale of military mobilization and the resulting bloodshed are unprecedented and lead to China’s diplomatic isolation in the early 1990s.

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and Vietnam’s withdrawal from Cambodia in 1990, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Vietnamese Communist Party Do Muoi visits China from 5 November through 10 November 1991. A joint communique issued following the visit marks the normalization of Sino-Vietnamese relations and calls for both countries to peacefully resolve the border dispute.

On 1 July 1997, the handover ceremony of Hong Kong is held at the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre, marking the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China and the end of British rule in Hong Kong.